Rev. innova educ. (2024). Vol. 6 No. 3 pp. 7-33  
ORIGINAL ARTICLE  
Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian  
school children and adolescents  
Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Trascendental: un estudio psicométrico de niños y  
adolescentes peruanos  
Teste de Autoavaliação de Meditação Transcendental: um estudo psicométrico de crianças e  
adolescentes peruanos  
Lee Fergusson1  
University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba - Queensland, Australia  
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1041-3760  
lee.fergusson@usq.edu.au (correspondence)  
Maxwell Rainforth  
Maharishi International University, Fairfield - Iowa,  
USA  
Javier Ortiz-Cabrejos  
Instituto Maharishi de Ciencia y Tecnología del  
Perú, Lima - Lima, Perú  
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-0508-5223  
mrainforth@miu.edu  
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9332-0809  
ortizcabrejosj@gmail.com  
Anna Bonshek  
Maharishi Vedic Research Institute, Gold Coast - Queensland, Australia  
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2138-2047  
anna@maharishivedicresearch.org  
DOI: https://doi.org/10.35622/j.rie.2024.03.001  
Received: 25/04/2024 Aceppted: 25/06/2024 Published: 10/07/2024  
KEYWORDS  
Transcendental  
ABSTRACT. The specific, as well as holistic, effects of practicing the Transcendental Meditation  
technique have been thoroughly documented. Findings associated with the practice have included  
a range of physiological, psychological and sociological benefits, but have also encompassed  
measures of general health, well-being and human development. However, few if any indigenous  
test instruments have been used to gather these data. In Perú, a test instrument called Test de  
Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental (i.e., Self-Assessment Test of Transcendental  
Meditation) designed to measure benefits of Transcendental Meditation in school children and  
adolescents has been deployed with some degree of success. The test was designed about 25  
years ago to measure physical health, cognitive health, emotional health, and school performance,  
Meditation, psychometric  
testing, exploratory factor  
analysis, school, Peru.  
1 Educational Researcher at School of Education, University of Southern Queensland, Australia.  
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.  
Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
and has been completed by about 50,000 primary and secondary school students since its  
introduction. Recently published studies have documented the results. But the test has never been  
psychometrically evaluated. The purpose of the present study therefore was to rigorously assess  
the reliability and construct validity of the instrument using exploratory factor analysis and  
confirmatory factor analysis. Results of these analyses revealed a five latent factors—more alertness  
and energy, improved physical and mental health, enhanced cognitive performance, enhanced  
emotional and behavioural self-regulation, and more fulfilling interpersonal relationships—which  
reliably predicted an overall scale of health in students. Application of a revised Test de  
Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental is now ready for further use in Perú and, with  
translation, other school settings.  
PALABRAS CLAVE  
Meditación  
Trascendental, pruebas  
psicométricas, análisis  
factorial exploratorio,  
escuela, Perú.  
RESUMEN. Los efectos específicos y holísticos de la práctica de la técnica de Meditación  
Trascendental han sido documentados exhaustivamente. Los hallazgos asociados con la práctica  
han incluido una variedad de beneficios fisiológicos, psicológicos y sociológicos, pero también han  
abarcado medidas de salud general, bienestar y desarrollo humano. Sin embargo, se han utilizado  
pocos, si acaso, instrumentos de prueba indígenas para recopilar estos datos. En Perú, un  
instrumento de prueba llamado Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Trascendental, diseñado para  
medir los beneficios de la Meditación Trascendental en niños escolares y adolescentes, ha sido  
desplegado con cierto grado de éxito. El test fue diseñado hace unos 25 años para medir la salud  
física, cognitiva, emocional y el rendimiento escolar, y ha sido completado por aproximadamente  
50,000 estudiantes de primaria y secundaria desde su introducción. Estudios publicados  
recientemente han documentado los resultados. Sin embargo, el test nunca ha sido evaluado  
psicométricamente. Por lo tanto, el propósito del presente estudio fue evaluar rigurosamente la  
fiabilidad y la validez de constructo del instrumento utilizando análisis factorial exploratorio y  
confirmatorio. Los resultados de estos análisis revelaron cinco factores latentes—mayor alerta y  
energía, mejor salud física y mental, mejor rendimiento cognitivo, mejor regulación emocional y  
conductual, y relaciones interpersonales más satisfactorias—que predijeron de manera confiable  
una escala general de salud en los estudiantes. La aplicación de un Test de Autoevaluación de  
Meditación Trascendental revisado está ahora lista para un uso más amplio en Perú y, con  
traducción, en otros entornos escolares.  
PALAVRAS-CHAVE  
RESUMO. Os efeitos específicos e holísticos da prática da técnica de Meditação Transcendental  
foram amplamente documentados. As descobertas associadas à prática incluíram uma gama de  
benefícios fisiológicos, psicológicos e sociológicos, mas também abrangeram medidas de saúde  
geral, bem-estar e desenvolvimento humano. No entanto, poucos ou nenhum instrumento de teste  
indígena foram usados para coletar esses dados. No Peru, um instrumento de teste chamado Teste  
de Autoavaliação de Meditação Transcendental, projetado para medir os benefícios da Meditação  
Transcendental em crianças em idade escolar e adolescentes, foi implementado com algum grau  
de sucesso. O teste foi projetado há cerca de 25 anos para medir a saúde física, cognitiva,  
emocional e o desempenho escolar, e foi completado por cerca de 50.000 estudantes do ensino  
fundamental e médio desde a sua introdução. Estudos recentemente publicados documentaram os  
resultados. No entanto, o teste nunca foi avaliado psicometricamente. Portanto, o propósito do  
presente estudo foi avaliar rigorosamente a confiabilidade e a validade de construção do  
instrumento usando análise fatorial exploratória e confirmatória. Os resultados dessas análises  
revelaram cinco fatores latentes—maior alerta e energia, saúde física e mental melhorada,  
desempenho cognitivo aprimorado, regulação emocional e comportamental aprimorada, e  
relacionamentos interpessoais mais satisfatórios—que previram de maneira confiável uma escala  
geral de saúde nos estudantes. A aplicação de um Teste de Autoavaliação de Meditação  
Transcendental revisado está agora pronta para uso mais amplo no Peru e, com tradução, em  
outros ambientes escolares.  
Meditação  
Transcendental, teste  
psicométrico, análise  
fatorial exploratória,  
escola, Peru.  
1. INTRODUCTION  
Introduced in the early 1960s and first empirically tested ten years later (Wallace, 1970), the Transcendental  
Meditation technique, as taught by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and his trained teachers, is one of the world’s most  
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Lee Fergusson; Maxwell Rainforth; Javier Ortiz-Cabrejos; Anna Bonshek  
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.  
Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
extensively tested systems of health and human development. Transcendental Meditation has been described  
as a simple, natural, effortless and easy-to-learn mental technique for children and adults designed to allow the  
conscious thinking mind to settle down to experience a profound state of inner silence along with a deep level  
of physiological rest in preparation for more dynamic and successful action (Schneider et al., 2024, p. 2).  
One recent systematic review of data from 1955–2022 found evidence of 8,776 studies on the topic of  
Transcendental Meditation in 3,054 journals by 18,133 authors from 3,505 organizations (Wani, 2023). For  
example, according to Wani, Behavioural and Brain Sciences has published 131 studies, BMJ has published  
109 studies, Frontiers in Psychology has published 71 studies, Perceptual and Motor Skills has published 70  
studies, and The Lancet has published 63 studies.  
Perhaps the most reliable source of data on Transcendental Meditation are the eight volumes of 678 empirical,  
theoretical, and review papers published since 1977 (Chalmers et al., 1989a, 1989b, 1989c; Dillbeck, 2020;  
Orme-Johnson, & Farrow, 1977; Wallace et al., 1991), with many more studies not contained in these collected  
works (e.g., Avvenuti et al., 2020; Azizoddin et al., 2021; Leach & Lorenzon, 2023; Nestor, Lawson, & Fischer,  
2023; Rutledge et al., 2014; Walton et al., 2023). A considerable body of recent evidence by this paper’s authors  
has also emerged from Peru, where some 53,000 children and adolescents in more than 70 schools have been  
taught Transcendental Meditation since the late 1990s (Fergusson et al., 2020, 2021a, 2022b, 2023a, 2023b,  
2023c).  
This basic and applied research program measuring the effects of Transcendental Meditation has centered on  
three main fields of investigation: A) physiological; B) psychological; and C) sociological. Of the first field, focus  
areas have included metabolic, biochemical, electrophysiological, electroencephalographic, and cardiovascular  
changes and salutary changes to health more broadly. Of the second field, focus areas have included verbal and  
non-verbal intelligence, learning, academic performance, and development of personality. And of the third field,  
focus areas have included rehabilitation, productivity, and quality of life. Each of these three fields of research  
and the focus areas within them can be viewed as mutually interdependent and it is this holistic effect of practicing  
Transcendental Meditation on health and well-being which is of most significance, as will be discussed later in  
this study.  
Of the published peer-reviewed studies on Transcendental Meditation, most have used standardized test  
instruments and measures. For example, in physiological research, measures include respiration rate, basal  
cortisol, ultra-weak photon emissions, time-domain phase synchrony, and hypertension using standard medical  
and neurophysiological instrumentation. For psychological research, measures include memory, creativity, field  
independence, information processing, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder using  
instruments like the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (e.g., Throll, 1981), Personal Wellbeing Index (e.g., Fergusson  
et al., 2023d), and Perceived Stress Scale (e.g., Nidich et al., 2016). For sociological research, measures include  
recidivism, leadership behaviour, interpersonal experience, and accidental death rates using instruments like the  
Social Hospitalization Assessment of Personality and Socialization (e.g., Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos,  
1991), Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey (e.g., Elder et al., 2014), and The Industrial Barometer  
(e.g., Heaton, Schmidt-Wilk, & Travis, 2004). However, and most importantly for the present study, few if any  
indigenous test instruments specifically designed to measure the impact of Transcendental Meditation, for  
example when practiced by children and adolescents in a school setting, have been forthcoming.  
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Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.  
Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
Approximately 25 years ago, the third author of this study developed a Spanish-language questionnaire for use  
in schools in Peru. Exploring student opinions and self-reports, the aim of the questionnaire was to measure  
holistic changes in student experience as a result of regularly practicing Transcendental Meditation when it was  
incorporated into the primary and secondary curriculum. This approach was deemed more practical and less  
cumbersome for primary and secondary school students than administering separate tests to measure different  
variables. A detailed description of questionnaire development follows. Taking about 15 minutes to complete,  
the easy-to-administer, paper-and-pencil test developed in Peru, called the Test de Autoevaluación de  
Meditación Transcendental (i.e., Self-Assessment Test of Transcendental Meditation), has been administered to  
about 50,000 students who have learned Transcendental Meditation. The purpose of the present study is to  
statistically examine the reliability and validity of this test instrument, confirm its applicability with school children  
and adolescents, and modify it where necessary for international application.  
Instrument development in Peru  
Development of the Test de Autoevaluación relied on two main sources of published data. First, topics identified  
as relevant for school children and adolescents in Perú drew on key areas of education sanctioned by the  
Peruvian Ministry of Education, specifically elements of the primary and secondary curriculum related to exercise,  
management of emotions and stress, development of critical thinking and decision making, and mental and  
emotional strength as they relate to academic performance (Adler, 2016). Second, and most importantly for this  
study, development of the instrument was informed and guided by prior international research findings on  
Transcendental Meditation.  
As noted above, these international findings have been generally organised into areas such as physiological,  
psychological, and sociological research. The findings from this international research program have been  
summarised in Table 1.  
Based on these international data, 47 items for use in the Test de Autoevaluación were isolated from the literature  
by the second author. Statements about the practice of Transcendental Meditation were then clustered into four  
main categories: C1 = physical health (derived from physiological research); C2 = cognitive health; C3 =  
emotional health (derived from psychological research); and C4 = school performance (derived from sociological  
research). Table 1 shows the three main fields of international research on Transcendental Meditation, the four  
categories used in the Test de Autoevaluación with the four category names, research findings supportive of the  
category, and example sources related to the category.  
Category 1 (C1) included 13 statements about physical health, with students asked to rate their levels of  
tiredness, energy, sickness, quality of sleep, and athletic ability as a result of practicing Transcendental  
Meditation. For example, statement #3 was Tengo más energia (I have more energy), statement #5 was duermo  
mejor (I sleep better), and statement #12 was Mis problemas de salud han disminuido (My health complaints  
have decreased).  
Category 2 (C2) included ten statements related to cognitive health, with students asked to rate their memory,  
comprehension, and problem-solving ability as a result of practicing Transcendental Meditation. For example,  
statement #1 was Mi memoria ha mejorado (My memory has improved), statement #4 was Entiendo major las  
cosas (I understand things more), and statement #10 was Encuentro soluciones a los problemas más rápido (I  
find solutions to problems faster).  
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Lee Fergusson; Maxwell Rainforth; Javier Ortiz-Cabrejos; Anna Bonshek  
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.  
Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
Category 3 (C3) included 12 statements related to emotional health, with students asked to rate their aggression,  
affective relations, friendliness, and happiness as a result of practicing Transcendental Meditation. For example,  
statement #5 was Soy menos agresiva/agresivo (I am less aggressive), statement #7 was Confio en mi (I trust  
myself), and statement #11 was Me siento mas confiado en lo que hago (I feel more confident in what I do).  
Table 1  
International research findings on Transcendental Meditation used to guide development of the Test de  
Autoevaluación to measure holistic student health in Peru  
Category Name Used on  
Field of Research  
the Test de  
Research Finding  
Example Sources of Data  
Autoevaluación  
Increased Alertness and  
Decreased Tiredness  
Increased Energy  
Doan (1990); Fergusson, Ortiz Cabrejos, &  
Bonshek (2020); Jonsson (1989)  
Alexander et al. (1990); Nidich et al. (2015)  
Orme-Johnson, Alexander, & Hawkins (2005);  
Perkins & Aquino-Russell (2017)  
Travis et al. (2009); Wendt et al. (2015)  
Orme-Johnson (1987); Smith et al. (1990)  
Dillbeck & Szal (1989); O’Halloran et al.  
(1985)  
A. Physiological  
Research  
Physical Health (Category 1) Reduced Sickness  
Improved Quality of Sleep  
Improved Overall Health  
Improved Memory  
Increased Comprehension  
Dillbeck et al. (1986); Nataraj & Radhamani  
(1989)  
Cognitive Health (Category Improved Problem-Solving Nidich, Schneider, Nidich, & Foster (2005);  
2)  
Ability  
Travis (2014)  
Improved Ability to Focus  
Dillbeck et al. (1986); Gelderloos, Lockie, &  
Chuttoorgoon (1987)  
Increased Learning Ability  
Increased Optimism  
Jedrczak, Toomey, & Clements (1986); Nidich  
et al. (2011); Valosek et al. (2019)  
Bloomfield (1977); Brown (1989); Elder et al.  
(2014).  
Benn (2003); Shourie (2012); Walton &  
Levitsky (2003)  
Fehr, Nerstheimer, & Torber (1977);  
Gelderloos (1987)  
Rosaen & Benn (2006); Sandhu & Kaur  
(1999)  
B. Psychological  
Research  
Reduced Aggression  
Increased Friendliness  
Emotional Health (Category  
3)  
Improved Interpersonal  
Relations  
Increased Happiness  
Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos (1991);  
Bleasdale, Peterson, & Nidich (2019); Wendt  
et al. (2015)  
Increased Confidence  
Singh & Kaur (2008); Trama & Cheema  
(2016)  
Improved Academic  
Achievement  
Nidich & Nidich (1989); Vela Valenzuela,  
Dillbeck, & Sacristán Rock (2022); Wallace,  
Orme-Johnson, Mills, & Dillbeck (1984)  
Ng, Nidich & Nidich (2021)  
Friendliness Toward  
Classmates  
C.  
School Performance  
(Category 4)  
Sociological  
Research  
Decreased Drop-out Rate  
and Truancy  
Colbert (2013)  
Increased Efficiency at  
School  
Cranson et al. (1991); Dillbeck & Orme-  
Johnson (1987)  
Increased Enthusiasm and  
Satisfaction  
Gaylord et al. (1989); Levine (1972)  
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Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
Category 4 (C4) included 12 statements related to academic and general performance at school, with students  
asked to rate their satisfaction and efficiency at school, getting along with classmates, academic achievement,  
and truancy as a result of practicing Transcendental Meditation. For example, statement #1 was Me siento  
satisfecho en mi colegio (I feel satisfied in my school), statement #3 was Hago más cosas en menos tiempo (I  
do more things [at school] in less time), and statement #12 was La rutina de trabajo es más divertida (the work  
routine [at school] is more fun).  
The overall purpose of the Test de Autoevaluación was thus to measure the holistic effects of Transcendental  
Meditation and to capture student data on a wide range of impacts.  
Two versions of the Test de Autoevaluación were developed. Both versions use the same 47 statements requiring  
a response but the first (developed in 2000) allowed only binary ‘Yes/No’ responses while the second (developed  
in 2020) required a self-reported rating on a 1–10 Likert scale. On this scale, 1–3 represented ‘definitely  
disagree’, 4–5 represented ‘disagree’, 6–7 represented ‘agree’, and 8–10 represented ‘definitely agree’. Scores  
of <5.50 on the second version therefore mean that a student definitely disagrees or disagrees with the statement,  
while scores of ≥5.50 mean the student agrees or definitely agrees with the statement. Three published studies  
in Perú have reported findings related to the Test de Autoevaluación.  
The first study using binary responses (scored Yes = 2, No = 1) was carried out with 91 randomly selected  
school children, ranging in age from 11–16 years, in a remote Peruvian town in the central mountains called  
Huay-Huay (Fergusson et al., 2021b). Using the Test de Autoevaluación to ask students about their experience  
with Transcendental Meditation, the study considered whether or not the practice impacted their personal and  
academic lives, and if so to what extent.  
Cronbach alpha coefficients computed for scale reliability of a) statements within categories, b) categories in  
relation to each other, and c) to the overall construct of holistic health (i.e., the combined score of all categories)  
yielded internal consistencies of C1 Cα = .52, C2 Cα = .60, C3 Cα = .55, and C4 Cα = .62, Cα = .81 for average  
reliability between categories, and Cα = .86 for reliability of all categories combined. Data indicated a majority of  
school children in Huay-Huay self-reported benefit from practicing Transcendental Meditation across all four  
categories, with 73 %, 81 %, 86 %, and 82 % of students agreeing that practice of Transcendental Meditation  
had improved their physical, cognitive and emotional health, and school performance. These findings were not  
influenced by gender, age or grade level.  
The second study asked students to rate their experience with Transcendental Meditation using the ten-point  
Likert scale and sampled 520 students, ranging in age from 10–17 years at four schools in Peru (Fergusson et  
al., 2022a). Cronbach alpha coefficients computed for scale reliability of the combined score of all categories  
was Cα = .92. Data also indicated a majority of children in the four schools reported benefit from the practice of  
Transcendental Meditation across all four categories: 59 %, 69 %, 77 %, and 79 % of students agreed that  
practicing Transcendental Meditation had improved their physical, cognitive and emotional health, and school  
performance. These findings indicated the average response to all categories in School #1 was 6.94, in School  
#2 was 6.38, in School #3 was 6.31, and in School #4 was 6.63, average scores which mean students  
consistently agreed with statements that Transcendental Meditation benefited their health and school  
performance. Findings showed the total average scores for all participants ≥5.50 (i.e., an average response of  
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Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.  
Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
agree/definitely agree) for C1 = 6.34, for C2 = 7.65, for C3 = 7.72, and for C4 = 7.88, with an average total score  
of 7.39 on the ten-point scale.  
The third study conducted at Institución Educativa Privada Prescott in Puno using the ten-point Likert scale  
explored the experience of 107 volunteer primary and secondary students, ranging in age from 10–17 years  
(Fergusson et al., 2022b). These students were divided into two groups: Group A, students who meditated  
together in their classes at school prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, consisted of 53 students; and Group B,  
students who meditated together online at the same time while in home isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic,  
consisted of 54 students.  
Findings suggest 47 % of participants (25 out of 53) and 56 % of participants (30 out of 53) in Group A agreed  
or definitely agreed their C1 physical health and C2 cognitive health, respectively, had benefited from the practice  
of Transcendental Meditation before home isolation, while 100 % of participants (54 out of 54) and 96 % of  
participants (52 out of 54) in Group B agreed or definitely agreed they had benefited from the practice while in  
home isolation. Similarly, 60 % of participants (32 out of 53) and 57 % of participants (30 out of 53) in Group  
A agreed or definitely agreed that their C3 emotional health and C4 school performance respectively had  
benefited from the practice of Transcendental Meditation before home isolation, while 96 % of participants (52  
out of 54) and 98 % of participants 53 out of 54) in Group B agreed or definitely agreed they had benefited from  
the practice while in home isolation.  
Average responses to all categories for Group A = 6.38 and for Group B = 7.62, meaning students in both  
Groups generally agreed with statements that practicing Transcendental Meditation had benefited their health  
and school performance before (Group A) and during (Group B) the pandemic. Again, these findings were not  
influenced by gender, age or grade level.  
Previous publications (e.g., Fergusson et al., 2021b, 2022a, 2022b) reported results based upon scoring the  
Test de Autoevaluación according to the original four-category conceptualization of the instrument, rather than  
an empirically based analysis of the factor structure of the instrument. The objectives of the present study  
therefore were to investigate: A) whether the four-category structure of the original Test de Autoevaluación is  
valid when measured using factor analysis; B) whether the category structure needs modification; and C) whether  
the factor structure of the instrument, if modified, is consistent for different age and gender subgroups (i.e.,  
primary school versus secondary school, and girls versus boys).  
We anticipated that practice of Transcendental Meditation by school children and adolescents in Perú would  
have holistic and measurable effects, and therefore all (or most) items on the Test de Autoevaluación would be  
intercorrelated, and a latent variable (or variables) would underlie intercorrelations among the items. We  
conjectured that the instrument would have a meaningful total score.  
2. METHOD  
Participating schools and students  
The following school and student were supplied by Instituto Maharishi de Ciencia y Tecnología del Perú. Six  
primary and secondary schools in Peru participated in this research. One thousand, one hundred and eighty-  
one students completed the Test de Autoevaluación in 2023. Table 2 identifies the participating schools and the  
number of students from each school who completed the questionnaire. In Peru, compulsory education is  
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Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
organised into primary and secondary levels, with six grades in each. In the present study, students in 4th grade  
primary (9–10 years old), 5th grade primary (10–11 years old), 6th grade primary (11–12 year olds), 1st grade  
secondary (12–13 year olds), 2nd grade secondary (13–14 year olds), 3rd grade secondary (14–15 year olds),  
4th grade secondary (15–16 year olds), and 5th grade secondary (16–17 year olds) participated in the study. Of  
the 1,181 students who participated, 667 were primary school and 514 were secondary school students, and  
610 were girls and 571 were boys.  
Table 2  
Participating schools and student participants  
Total Enrolment  
in Year Data Were  
Collected  
Number of  
Participating  
Students  
Age Range of  
Participating  
Students  
Participating School  
Institución Educativa Emblemática Cesar Vallejo  
Institución Educativa Privada Prescott  
Institución Educativa Colegio Santa María Reyna  
Colegio Tomasa Ttito Condemayta  
Hogar de Niñas Virgen de Fatima de Chejoña  
Glorioso Colegio Nacional de San Carlos  
Total  
1,400  
300  
400  
600  
75  
1,500  
4,275  
413  
53  
70  
351  
36  
258  
9–13  
12–17  
10–17  
12–17  
12–17  
9–13  
1,181  
9–17  
School #1: Institucion Educativa Emblematica Cesar Vallejo, a government-run public school, is located in the  
La Victoria district of central Lima. La Victoria is one of the most densely populated and dangerous areas of Lima  
and is home to about 185,000 people within its 8.7km2 area. It is mainly a residential community, with barrios  
(i.e., slums) in the north, pueblos jóvenes (i.e., squatter settlements) in the east, and middle-income housing in  
the south, but with high levels of crime and unemployment throughout the district. Cesar Vallejo has an  
enrolment of 1,400 mostly disadvantaged students across all primary and secondary grade levels.  
Transcendental Meditation was introduced into the curriculum in 2014, with approximately 2,000 students  
instructed in the practice between 2014–2019.  
School #2: Institución Educativa Privada Prescott, a private school, is located in the city of Puno on Lake Titicaca  
in the southeast of the country. Puno is home to the Aymara people, a continuous pre-Incan civilization living at  
3,800m on the Altiplano in the Andean highlands. With a total population of about 3.0 million people, the Aymara  
are distributed across eastern Bolivia, southern Perú and northern Chile, with the largest group concentrated in  
the Lake Titicaca region. The Prescott school, established in 1992 to offer primary and secondary education,  
seeks to develop the values of honesty, work, social sensitivity, responsibility towards the community, and  
respect for the family, the homeland and the globalized world. Approximately 300 students attend the school,  
with 2,000 students having been instructed in Transcendental Meditation since 1998.  
School #3: Institución Educativa Colegio Santa María Reyna, a private school, is located in the Ventanilla district  
of the Constitutional Province of Callao. Approximately 500,000 people inhabit the coastal region of Callao, but  
Ventanilla is an underprivileged district and was mostly deserted until about 40 years ago. Colegio Santa María  
Reyna seeks to develop student potential by not only conforming to the National Curriculum but also by  
incorporating what it calls ‘alternative methodologies’. The school has an enrolment of 400 students, with  
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Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
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Transcendental Meditation introduced into the primary and secondary curriculum in 2016; approximately 500  
students have been instructed in the practice over five years.  
School #4: Colegio Tomasa Ttito Condemayta, a government-run public school, is located in the Acomayo  
district of Cusco. In addition to its unique geographic location high in the Andes at 3,300m, the Acomayo district  
is populated by 24,000 mostly indigenous Quechua who, like the Aymara of Puno, are a pre-Incan people of  
Perú, Bolivia, and Chile. This secondary school, named after Doña Tomasa Ttito Condemayta Hurtado de  
Mendoza (1729–1781) a leading force in the indigenous uprising against Spanish colonial rule under King  
Tupac Amaru II in the 18th century, has approximately 600 students with almost all of them having learned  
Transcendental Meditation during 2019.  
School #5: Hogar de Niñas Virgen de Fatima de Chejoña, an all-girls Centro de Acogida Residencial (or  
residential shelter centre) located about 30km southeast of Puno’s central district two kilometres from the eastern  
bank of Lake Titicaca at an altitude of 3,800m, high on Perú’s Altiplano. Girls at Hogar de Niñas attend local  
primary and secondary schools, but live and are cared for at the residential shelter.  
School #6: Glorioso Colegio Nacional de San Carlos is famous throughout Perú because it was founded in 1825  
by Simón Bolívar, the military and political leader who led Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Perú, Panama, and  
Bolivia to independence from the Spanish. San Carlos, with approximately 1,500 students across all primary and  
secondary grade levels, also located at an altitude of 3,800m, is a government-run school located in Puno on  
the eastern banks of Lake Titicaca in the country’s southeast. About 5,000 students attending San Carlos have  
been instructed in Transcendental Meditation between 1997 and 2022, including 600 in 2022.  
Data for responses obtained from the six participating schools were entered for all 47 items of the Test de  
Autoevaluación, along with student characteristics on age, gender, and grade level. Data were complete for all  
students and items, with no missing data. Three items on the Test de Autoevaluación were not included in  
analysis of the factor structure of the instrument, two because they were not directly related to assessment of  
academic outcomes or core factors affecting educational experience, and a third was concerned with school  
attendance, resulting in 44 items at the conceptual model stage. A further item was dropped from the conceptual  
model because of poor fit with factor groupings of other items. Therefore 43 items were included in the final  
factor analysis.  
Data analysis  
The investigation proceeded in three stages. In the first stage, we constructed a model of the factor structure of  
the Test de Autoevaluación derived from the first dataset. In the second stage, we cross-validated the structural  
model on a separate dataset. In the third stage, we compared factor loadings of the Test de Autoevaluación items  
among demographic subgroups of the data, i.e., between primary school grade levels versus secondary school  
grade levels, and between girls versus boys. Statistical software programs used were: SPSS ver. 29 and AMOS  
ver. 29. So that the model obtained from the first stage could be validated on a separate set of data at the second  
stage of analysis, responses from each of the six schools were divided equally into two halves. Half of the data  
from the six schools formed the initial model development sample (n = 590), upon which construction of the  
structural model of the instrument in stages 1 and 2 was based. The other half of data (n = 591) formed the  
cross-validation sample upon which validity of the structural model was assessed and validated at the second  
stage.  
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Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
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In the first stage of the investigation, a model of the factor structure of the Test de Autoevaluación was constructed  
and tested against the study data. First, a conceptual model of the factor structure was formulated, based on the  
theoretical considerations that guided the development of the instrument. As a result of inspecting the content  
of the instrument, microclusters of items were identified and served as the basis for building a conceptual model  
of the factor structure of the instrument. The conceptual model was subsequently tested by performing  
exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis. To formulate the conceptual model, we started by  
considering the 14 microconstructs that served as the basis for writing the items of the Test de Autoevaluación  
when the instrument was originally developed. For each microconstruct there was an initial conceptual cluster  
of items, as shown in Table 3.  
Table 3  
Clustered items grouped conceptually to assess effects of Transcendental Meditation  
Microconstruct Name and Items  
1. More alertness and less tiredness  
I am less tired than before  
I am more alert and awake  
I feel less tired  
2. Increased energy  
I have more energy  
I go home from school with more energy  
3. Decreased anxiety  
I worry less than before  
I am less nervous  
I am less anxious and tense  
4. Increased self-confidence  
I trust in myself  
I feel more confident in what I do  
5. Improved efficiency  
I have more time to enjoy with my friends and my family  
I get things done more easily  
My efficiency has increased  
I do more things in less time  
I achieve more than before  
6. More positive emotions  
I am a more enthusiastic person  
I am more optimistic  
I am less aggressive  
I am more enthusiastic in what I do  
I have more good humour  
7. Improved ability to focus  
I am more able to focus  
I am more persistent in what I do  
8. Increased happiness  
I feel more satisfied  
I feel predominantly happy  
I feel satisfied in my school  
I feel happier with my family  
The work routine is more fun  
9. Improved physical health  
I don’t get sick as often  
My health complaints have decreased  
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Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
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Table 3  
Clustered items grouped conceptually to assess effects of Transcendental Meditation (continuation)  
Microconstruct Name and Items  
10. Enhanced learning ability  
My ability to study has improved  
I understand things more now  
11. Improved memory  
My memory has improved  
I remember things more now  
12. Better interpersonal relations  
I get along better with people  
I am less shy  
I have more friends  
My affective relationships improved  
I get along better with my classmates  
13. Improved sleep quality  
I sleep better  
I no longer suffer from insomnia  
14. Improved thinking ability  
I find solutions to problems faster  
I have more original ideas  
I am better able to put my ideas into practice  
I make up my mind more precisely  
Because in a confirmatory factor analysis there should be at least three measured variables (i.e., items on the  
Test de Autoevaluación in our case) for each latent variable (factor), the initial grouping of items was rearranged  
by merging some of the clustered items together, taking into account the content of items, which resulted in a  
smaller final conceptual cluster of items. Principal component analysis was used to ascertain whether the  
grouping of items into clusters was consistent with data for the model development sample. In addition, principal  
component analysis was performed on the items within each final conceptual cluster of items to check that each  
cluster was comprised of a single homogeneous factor and that all items in the cluster had high loadings on the  
factor.  
The conceptual model of the factor structure was represented as a structural equation model (SEM), which was  
fit to the data by performing confirmatory factor analysis in AMOS using the maximum likelihood method. The  
SEM was comprised of latent variables (factors), indicator variables (i.e., items on the Test de Autoevaluación),  
and disturbance variables to account for residual variance. In the SEM, for each cluster of items there was a  
latent variable, representing a factor underlying all the items in the cluster. Standardised regression coefficients  
from the confirmatory factor analysis yielded factor loadings for the Test de Autoevaluación items on the latent  
variables. Items with factor loadings of at least 0.4 on the same latent variable formed a subscale. To represent  
a total scale comprised of the subscales, the SEM also included a higher order factor underlying the factors  
associated with the subscales. A model solution that was estimated using confirmatory factor analysis was  
admissible only if all variances for the latent variables and residuals were positive.  
Goodness of fit of the model solution was evaluated based on fit indices commonly reported for confirmatory  
factor analysis (i.e., a goodness of fit index, GFI). The goodness of fit was also compared against the goodness  
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of fit of alternative models. Potential alternative models were identified based on combining a pair of latent  
variables by merging clusters of items associated with them into a single cluster with a single underlying it, or  
by switching an item from one latent variable cluster to another. Construction of alternative models by merging  
clusters was performed only when consistent with the content of the relevant items. Construction of alternate  
models did not allow for correlations between disturbance variables as this would yield models that were not  
grounded in theory. Alternative models were compared by comparing fit indices and model parsimony based on  
the Akaike Information Criteria (AIC).  
Replicability of model fit across the model development and cross-validation subsamples was performed using  
the compare groups feature of Amos. This feature was also used to compare the fit across demographic  
subgroups. Model comparison was based on examining the factor loadings for subsamples, as well as examining  
the p-value for the overall difference between the subsamples being compared in the measurement weights  
obtained for the model. In view of the large sample size, the alpha level for this comparison was set at .01.  
Screening for potential univariate outliers in the Test de Autoevaluación items was performed by examining box  
plots. Potential multivariate outliers were identified by calculating Mahalanobis distances for the clusters of items  
comprising the latent variables in the structural equation model of the Test de Autoevaluación.  
3. RESULTS  
Descriptive statistics and outliers. The model development subsample and the cross-validation subsample were  
similar on age and gender (see Table 4). Means of the items of the Test de Autoevaluación were between 5.67  
and 8.34; standard deviations ranged from 2.22 to 3.44.  
Table 4  
Descriptive statistics of the model development subsample and the cross-validation subsample by school level  
Model Development  
Subsample  
Cross-Validation Subsample  
Primary Level  
Number of students  
Age, mean±SD  
% male  
316  
10.9±0.9  
43.4%  
306  
10.9±0.9  
41.8%  
Secondary Level  
Number of students  
Age, mean±SD  
240  
14.3±1.4  
53.8%  
253  
14.2±1.4  
54.2%  
% male  
Both Primary and Secondary Levels  
Number of students  
Age, mean±SD  
556  
12.4±2.0  
47.8%  
559  
12.4±2.0  
47.4%  
% male  
The univariate distributions of all items were approximately normal, as evidenced by skewness and kurtosis  
statistics less than 2.0 in absolute value. There were no univariate outliers. A total of 66 multivariate outliers  
were excluded from the data; 561 responses in the model development subsample and 554 responses in the  
cross-validation subsample were included in the data analyses.  
Results of model development and cross-validation. The model development process resulted in a model that  
included 43 items of the Test de Autoevaluación, five subscales corresponding to factors underlying groups of  
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items, as shown in Table 5, and a total scale corresponding to a higher order factor underlying the subscales.  
Table 5 shows fit indices for the final model, compared to scoring based on the four- category structure of the  
original Test de Autoevaluación, as well as alternatives to the final model. Alternative models that were explored  
were based upon either four or three subscales instead of the final five subscales, or upon merging all items  
into one total scale. Alternative models with four or three subscales were formed from the final model with five  
subscales by merging pairs of subscales with the highest intercorrelations.  
Table 5  
Fit statistics for the final model and alternative models, based on the model development subsample  
Model  
AIC  
CFI  
GFI  
Original scoring of the Test (four categories)  
Final model (five factors, plus total scale)  
Alternative model 1 (four factors, plus total scale)  
Alternative model 2 (three factors, plus total scale)  
Alternative model 3 (total scale only)  
3735.688  
2929.162  
3042.241  
3093.075  
3610.407  
0.801  
0.861  
0.857  
0.854  
0.810  
0.748  
0.804  
0.803  
0.800  
0.734  
As shown in Table 5, comparison of the AIC numbers indicated that the final model was the most parsimonious  
choice, while also providing the best fit statistics—with the final model having the highest values of comparative  
fit index (CFI) and the goodness of fit index (GFI). Fit for the final model was substantially better than fit for the  
original four-category structure, and also compared to fit of the model that included a total scale but no subscales.  
Table 6 shows model fit indices for final model, based upon the model development subsample and the cross-  
validation subsample. The values for the two subsamples of root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)  
were <.08 and the ratios of χ2/df were between 2.0 and 5.0, suggesting adequate fit. The values of CFI are  
slightly below the target level of 0.90, however, when fitting models with large numbers of indicator variables  
more relaxed cutoff thresholds for adequate CFI are appropriate (Hair et al., 2010). In the final model, one item  
related to tiredness (i.e., ‘I am less tired than before’) was dropped from the model due to insufficient loading  
and was not included in any subscale. One item from microcluster 1) More alertness and less tiredness (‘I am  
more alert and awake’) and microcluster 2) Increased energy, together with the item ‘I sleep better’ from  
microcluster 13, formed a four-item subscale which was labelled ‘Alertness and energy’. Items from microclusters  
3) Decreased anxiety and 9) Improved physical health, an item assessing improved sleep from microcluster 13  
(‘I no longer suffer from insomnia’), and an item assessing decreased aggressiveness from microcluster 6 (‘I am  
less aggressive’) formed an eight-item subscale that was labelled ‘Physical and mental health’.  
Table 6  
Fit statistics for the confirmatory factor model of the Test de Autoevaluación for the model development  
subsample and in the cross-validation subsample  
Subsample  
χ2  
df  
χ2/df  
RMSEA  
CFI  
GFI  
Model development  
Cross-validation  
2749.16  
2530.24  
856  
856  
3.21  
2.95  
0.063  
0.059  
0.875  
0.867  
0.804  
0.812  
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Items from microclusters relating to 10) Enhanced learning ability, 11) Improved memory, 14) Improved thinking  
ability, along with one item from microcluster 7 (‘I am more able to focus’), were grouped together to form an  
eight-item subscale, which was labelled ‘Cognitive performance’. The largest subscale, comprised of 18 items,  
was formed by merging microclusters 4) Increased self-confidence, 5) Improved efficiency, 6) More positive  
emotions, and 8) Greater happiness, along with one item from microcluster 7 (‘I am more persistent in what I  
do’) and with one item from microcluster 14 (‘I make up my mind more precisely’). In view of the content of  
these items, the subscale was interpreted as indicative of ‘Emotional and behavioural self-regulation’. Items on  
efficiency were included in this subscale because they were highly correlated with other items in the subscale (r  
= .96).  
The five-item microcluster 12) Better interpersonal relations formed a subscale and was given the label  
‘Interpersonal relations’. In the final version of the model, each of the 43 items loaded on one, and only one,  
factor (Table 7). Therefore, the set of items comprising each subscale was separate from items comprising other  
subscales and each subscale was unidimensional. This was confirmed by principal component analysis, which  
showed there was just one factor underlying the items comprising each subscale. Loadings of the items on each  
subscale were positive and were all above 0.4.  
Table 7  
Loadings of each item in the five subscales of the Test de Autoevaluación in the model development subsample  
and the cross-validation sample  
Model  
Development  
Subsample  
Cross-  
Validation  
Subsample  
Subscales and Items  
Difference  
1. Alertness and energy  
I am more alert and awake  
I sleep better  
I have more energy  
I go home from school with more energy  
2. Physical and mental health  
I don’t get sick as often  
My health complaints have decreased  
I no longer suffer from insomnia  
I feel less tired  
I worry less than before  
I am less nervous  
I am less anxious and tense  
I am less aggressive  
0.66  
0.58  
0.71  
0.60  
0.64  
0.56  
0.60  
0.58  
–0.02  
–0.02  
-0.11  
-0.02  
0.55  
0.66  
0.59  
0.58  
0.64  
0.69  
0.65  
0.49  
0.53  
0.63  
0.53  
0.61  
0.68  
0.66  
0.60  
0.54  
–0.02  
–0.03  
–0.06  
0.03  
0.04  
–0.03  
–0.05  
0.05  
3. Cognitive performance  
I am more able to focus  
0.71  
0.58  
0.72  
0.71  
0.66  
0.67  
0.71  
0.70  
0.73  
0.54  
0.77  
0.74  
0.67  
0.65  
0.69  
0.62  
0.02  
–0.04  
0.05  
0.03  
0.01  
–0.02  
–0.02  
–0.08  
My ability to study has improved  
I understand things more now  
My memory has improved  
I remember things more now  
I find solutions to problems faster  
I have more original ideas  
I am better able to put my ideas into practice  
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Table 7  
Loadings of each item in the five subscales of the Test de Autoevaluación in the model development subsample  
and the cross-validation sample (continuation)  
Model  
Development  
Subsample  
Cross-  
Validation  
Subsample  
Subscales and Items  
Difference  
4. Emotional and behavioural self-regulation  
I am a more enthusiastic person  
I am more optimistic  
I am more enthusiastic in what I do  
I have more good humour  
0.65  
0.61  
0.76  
0.63  
0.71  
0.60  
0.61  
0.55  
0.67  
0.64  
0.68  
0.75  
0.67  
0.62  
0.74  
0.69  
0.70  
0.52  
0.70  
0.65  
0.79  
0.60  
0.72  
0.59  
0.60  
0.51  
0.66  
0.62  
0.66  
0.74  
0.68  
0.57  
0.75  
0.68  
0.66  
0.53  
0.05  
0.04  
0.03  
–0.03  
0.01  
I feel more satisfied  
I feel predominantly happy  
I feel satisfied in my school  
I feel happier with my family  
The work routine is more fun  
I trust in myself  
I feel more confident in what I do  
I am more persistent in what I do  
I make up my mind more precisely  
I get things done more easily  
My efficiency has increased  
I do more things in less time  
I achieve more than before  
I have more time to enjoy my friends and family  
5. Interpersonal relationships  
I get along better with people  
I am less shy  
–0.01  
–0.01  
–0.04  
–0.01  
–0.02  
–0.02  
–0.01  
0.01  
–0.05  
0.01  
–0.01  
–0.04  
0.01  
0.73  
0.67  
0.66  
0.48  
0.67  
0.78  
0.72  
0.70  
0.47  
0.72  
0.05  
0.05  
0.04  
–0.01  
0.05  
I have more friends  
My affective relationships improved  
I get along better with my classmates  
As shown in Table 8, the average loadings on each subscale were similar for the two subsamples. Therefore,  
the items comprising each subscale were the same in both subsamples. Loadings of the subscales on the total  
scale were similar in the two subsamples and ranged from 0.70 to 0.98 (Table 9).  
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Table 8  
Comparison of factor loadings on the Test de Autoevaluación subscales in the model development subsample  
and in the cross-validation subsample  
Subscale Loadings for Model  
Development Subsample  
Subscale Loadings for Cross-  
validation Subsample  
Range  
Average Loading  
Average  
Loading  
Range  
(Min–Max)  
Subscale  
1. Alertness and energy  
2. Physical and mental health  
3. Cognitive performance  
(Min–Max)  
0.64  
0.65  
0.67  
0.64  
0.67  
0.60–0.69  
0.57–0.71  
0.57–0.75  
0.46–0.75  
0.50–0.76  
0.59  
0.63  
0.67  
0.64  
0.65  
0.52–0.63  
0.53–0.69  
0.53–0.73  
0.47–0.80  
0.47–0.74  
4. Emotional and behavioural self-regulation  
5. Interpersonal relationships  
Cronbach alpha coefficients for the subscales and total scale were all above 0.7 and were similar on the total  
scale and the three subscales with seven or more items (Table 10). The p-value for the comparison of groups  
on structural coefficients was not significant (p = .98). Taken together, evidence indicates adequate fit of the  
structural equation model and replication of the factor structure of the Test de Autoevaluación across the two  
subsamples.  
Table 9  
Loadings of the subscales on the total scale in the model development subsample and in the cross-validation  
subsample  
Model Development  
Subsample  
Cross-Validation  
Subsample  
Subscale  
1. Alertness and energy  
2. Physical and mental health  
3. Cognitive performance  
4. Emotional and behavioural self-regulation  
5. Interpersonal relationships  
0.91  
0.72  
0.88  
0.97  
0.88  
0.89  
0.72  
0.94  
0.97  
0.84  
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Table 10  
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the Test de Autoevaluación subscales and total scale in the model development  
sample and in the cross-validation sample  
Alpha Coefficients  
Model  
Development  
Subsample  
Cross-validation  
Subsample  
Subscale and Total Scale  
No. of items  
1. Alertness and energy  
4
8
8
18  
5
.76  
.84  
.91  
.94  
.79  
.96  
.72  
.83  
.90  
.94  
.82  
.97  
2. Physical and mental health  
3. Cognitive performance  
4. Emotional and behavioural self-regulation  
5. Interpersonal relationships  
Total Scale  
43  
Comparison of factor structure for demographic subgroups. Cross-validation was performed using the compare  
groups feature of Amos. This feature was also used to compare the fit across demographic subgroups.  
Table 11  
Comparison of factor loadings on the Test de Autoevaluación subscales in the primary school grades subscale  
and in the secondary school grades subsample  
Subscale Loadings for Primary  
School Grades  
Subscale Loadings for Secondary  
School Grades  
Range  
Average Loading  
Average  
Loading  
Range  
(Min–Max)  
Subscale  
(Min–Max)  
1. Alertness and energy  
2. Physical and mental health  
3. Cognitive performance  
0.62  
0.65  
0.69  
0.66  
0.67  
0.55–0.68  
0.56–0.70  
0.58–0.74  
0.46–0.80  
0.50–0.76  
0.60  
0.53  
0.66  
0.63  
0.64  
0.58–0.62  
0.42–0.62  
0.55–0.73  
0.52–0.72  
0.43–0.74  
4. Emotional and behavioural self-regulation  
5. Interpersonal relationships  
Primary school grade levels versus secondary school grade levels. The p-value for the comparison of factor  
loadings in the primary school subsample versus the secondary school subsample was statistically significant  
(p < .001). However, the average item loadings on four out of the five subscales were similar in the two  
subsamples, with the exception of the physical and mental health subscale (see Table 11). Nevertheless, all item  
loadings were above 0.4. Hence, the items comprising each subscale were the same in both subsamples, and  
therefore the composition of subscales is consistent across both subsamples and no distinction between how  
the instrument tested primary school students and secondary school students could be observed. Cronbach’s  
alpha coefficients were greater than 0.7 for all subscales in both subsamples, as shown in Table 12.  
23  
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Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
Table 12  
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the Test de Autoevaluación subscales and total scale in the primary school  
grades subsample and in the secondary school grades subsample  
Alpha Coefficients  
Primary School  
Grades  
Secondary School  
Grades  
Subscale and Total Scale  
1. Alertness and energy  
2. Physical and mental health  
3. Cognitive performance  
4. Emotional and behavioural self-regulation  
5. Interpersonal relationships  
Total Scale  
No. of Items  
4
8
8
18  
5
.74  
.86  
.91  
.94  
.82  
.97  
.71  
.77  
.88  
.93  
.78  
.96  
43  
Boys versus girls. The p-value for comparison of the factor loadings in the girls subsample versus the boys  
subsample was not statistically significant (p = .24). However, the average item loadings on the five subscales  
were similar in the two subsamples (see Table 13). All item loadings were above 0.4. Hence the items comprising  
each subscale were the same in both gender subsamples, and therefore the composition of subscales is  
consistent across both subsamples and no distinction between how the instrument tested girls and boys could  
be observed. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were greater than 0.7 for all subscales in both subsamples, as shown  
in Table 14.  
Table 13  
Comparison of factor loadings on the Test de Autoevaluación subscales in the subsamples of girls and boys.  
Subscale Loadings  
for Girls  
Subscale Loadings  
for Boys  
Range  
(Min–Max)  
Average  
Loading  
Range  
(Min–Max)  
Subscale  
1. Alertness and energy  
2. Physical and mental health  
3. Cognitive performance  
Average Loading  
0.59  
0.61  
0.69  
0.67  
0.68  
0.55–0.64  
0.53–0.69  
0.56–0.74  
0.55–0.78  
0.50–0.78  
0.64  
0.58  
0.67  
0.64  
0.64  
0.61–0.68  
0.49–0.69  
0.56–0.74  
0.49–0.76  
0.45–0.73  
4. Emotional and behavioural self-regulation  
5. Interpersonal relationships  
24  
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Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
Table 14  
Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for the for the Test de Autoevaluación subscales and total scale in subsamples of  
girls and boys  
Alpha Coefficients  
Subscale and Total Scale  
1. Alertness and energy  
2. Physical and mental health  
3. Cognitive performance  
4. Emotional and behavioural self-regulation  
5. Interpersonal relationships  
Total Scale  
No. of items  
Girls  
Boys  
4
8
8
18  
5
.71  
.84  
.91  
.94  
.83  
.96  
.77  
.82  
.90  
.93  
.79  
.96  
43  
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION  
The four-category structure of the original Test de Autoevaluación was valid when assessed against international  
findings using face validity, but when measured using factor analysis five latent subscales not four were identified  
and thus the structure of Test de Autoevaluación needs modification. Confirmatory factor analysis in the present  
study clearly shows that the five-factor structure of the final model provides a better fit for the Test de  
Autoevaluación compared to the four-category structure based upon the original conceptualization of the  
instrument.  
In the original Test de Autoevaluación, C1 was related to physical health composed of 13 statements, but this  
category has now been broken into two subscales: ‘Alertness and energy’ (four items) and ‘Physical and mental  
health’ (eight items). Loadings on this subscale were somewhat lower in the secondary school subsample (i.e.,  
0.42–0.62 for secondary students versus 0.56–0.70 for primary students), but we can perhaps attribute this  
difference to changes associated with adolescence; more importantly item loadings for the secondary subsample  
were still well within acceptable statistical limits.  
The original C2 category with 10 items is largely unchanged as a construct and has been renamed ‘Cognitive  
performance’ (eight items). The original C3, which related to emotional health with 12 items, now includes  
behavioural self-regulation and has been expanded to 18 items called ‘Emotional and behavioural self-regulation’.  
A new subscale related to ‘Interpersonal relationships’ consisting of five items has entirely replaced the C4 school  
performance category, which initially had 12 items. Items related to school performance have been amalgamated  
into other subscales because they did not accurately represent a latent factor. For example, statements Me siento  
satisfecho en mi colegio (‘I feel satisfied in my school’) and La rutina de trabajo es más divertida (‘The work  
routine is more fun’) from C4 both loaded convincingly (0.60–0.67) to the ‘Emotional and behavioural self-  
regulation’ subscale. The five new subscales are thus more nuanced and valid than the original four categories  
and have been organised according to Figure 1.  
25  
Lee Fergusson; Maxwell Rainforth; Javier Ortiz-Cabrejos; Anna Bonshek  
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.  
Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
Figure 1  
Three levels of psychometric organisation and their relations of 43 clustered items (top), five subscales (middle),  
and one main factor or total scale (bottom)  
Excluding the aforementioned minor difference in ‘Physical and mental health’ between grade levels, the  
subscales are largely consistent for different age groups (i.e., primary school scores versus secondary school  
scores) and for different genders (i.e., girls’ scores versus boys’ scores). In psychometric theory, Cronbach’s  
alpha coefficients between Cα .96–.97, as observed in this study for the total scale, are considered extremely  
reliable and thus rated as ‘excellent’ in health research (Izah, Sylva, & Hait, 2023). They were also higher than  
the values for Cronbach’s alpha reported in previous studies that used the Test de Autoevaluación: Cα = .86  
(Fergusson et al., 2021b) and Cα = .92 (Fergusson et al., 2022a). Moreover values of alpha for the new subscales,  
which ranged from Cα = .72–.94 were markedly higher than the alpha values for the original categories, which  
ranged from Cα = .52–.62 (Fergusson et al., 2022a).  
We anticipated that practise of Transcendental Meditation by school children and adolescents in Perú would have  
holistic and measurable effects, and that all (or most) items on the Test de Autoevaluación would be  
intercorrelated, with a latent variable (or variables) undergirding correlations among items and subscales.  
Therefore, we conjectured that the instrument would have a meaningful total score. By removing the aforesaid  
four items, we have demonstrated that all remaining items on the Test de Autoevaluación are intercorrelated and  
that one holistic underlying variable related to the holistic health and development of school children and  
adolescents is measured by this questionnaire.  
This holistic variable can be referred to as the ‘enhanced educational experience’ of students who practise the  
Transcendental Meditation technique. Our intention now is to reapply and measure the revised Test de  
Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental in more schools in Peru and to begin its application in other  
international school settings.  
Conflicto de intereses / Competing interests:  
Los autores declaran que no incurren en conflictos de intereses.  
26  
Lee Fergusson; Maxwell Rainforth; Javier Ortiz-Cabrejos; Anna Bonshek  
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Test de Autoevaluación de Meditación Transcendental: a psychometric study of Peruvian school children and  
adolescents  
Rol de los autores / Authors Roles:  
Lee Fergusson: Conceptualización, metodología, curación de datos, investigación, recursos, escritura – borrador  
original, escritura – revisión y edición, visualización, supervisión, administración del proyecto, adquisición de fondos.  
Maxwell Rainforth: Metodología, software, validación, análisis formal, investigación, recursos, escritura – borrador  
original, escritura – revisión y edición, visualización.  
Javier Ortiz-Cabrejos: Investigación, recursos, escritura – borrador original.  
Anna Bonshek: Conceptualización, escritura – revisión y edición, adquisición de fondos.  
Fuentes de financiamiento / Funding:  
Los autores declaran que no recibió un fondo específico para esta investigación.  
Aspectos éticos / legales; Ethics / legals:  
Los autores declaran no haber incurrido en aspectos antiéticos, ni haber omitido aspectos legales en la realización de  
la investigación.  
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